The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking Fifth Edition, Epstein Richard L.
Автор: Epstein Richard L. Название: The Internal Structure of Predicates and Names ISBN: 1938421310 ISBN-13(EAN): 9781938421310 Издательство: Неизвестно Цена: 7348.00 р. Наличие на складе: Есть у поставщика Поставка под заказ.
Описание:
This series of volumes is meant to extend the scope of what we can formalize in classical predicate logic, and in doing so see the real limitations of what can be done.
The first section of this volume presents classical predicate logic with equality.
In the second section. that logic is extended to formalize reasoning that involves adverbs and relative adjectives by viewing those as modifiers of simpler predicates. What is normally taken to be an atomic predicate, such as "barking loudly", can then have internal structure. Reasoning that involves conjunctions of terms, as in "Tom and Dick lifted the table", conjunctions of modifiers, conjunctions of predicates, and disjunctions of predicates can also be formalized by viewing them as part of the internal structure of atomic predicates. Many questions about the nature of formalizing arise in doing this.
The internal structure of names is the topic of the third and last section. First, names for functions are used in classical predicate logic to form complex names. In our ordinary reasoning we also use descriptions to form functions, such as "the wife of ", and descriptions to form names, such as "the cat that scratched Zoe". To reason with those we can take account of their internal structure by dropping the assumption that every name must refer to a specific thing.
The formal systems that are developed here are not just formalisms but are meant to help us understand how to reason well. Many worked examples show how to use them. Those examples also uncover limitations of the formal work. Throughout this series of volumes, the work proceeds by abstracting and creating formal models to formalize reasoning. By paying attention to the process of abstracting we gain insight into why we consider some reasoning to be good and some reasoning bad, and insight also into the deeper assumptions we make about the world on which our judgments rely.
Описание: As far back as the Magna Carta in 1215, the right of private property was seen as a bulwark of the individual against the arbitrary power of the state. Indeed, common-law tradition holds that "property is the guardian of every other right." And yet, for most of the last seventy years, property rights had few staunch supporters in America. This latest addition to Oxford's Inalienable Rights series provides a succinct, pointed look at property rights in America--how they came to be, how they have evolved, and why they should once again be a mainstay of the law. Richard A. Epstein, the nation's preeminent authority on the subject, examines all aspects of private property--from real estate to air rights to intellectual property. He takes the reader from the strongly protective property rights advocated by the framers of the Constitution through to the weak property rights supported by Progressive and liberal politicians of the twentieth century and finally to our own time, which has seen a renewed appreciation of property rights in the aftermath of the Supreme Court's landmark Kelo v. New London decision in 2005. The author's own powerful defense of property rights threads through the narrative. Using both political theory and economic analysis, Epstein argues that above all that private property is a sound social institution, and not just an excuse for selfishness and greed. Only a system of private property lets people form and raise families, organize religious and other charitable organizations, and earn a living through honest labor. Supreme Neglect offers a compact, incisive look at this hotly contested constitutional right, championing property rights as an essential social institution.
Автор: Epstein Richard L. Название: Prescriptive Reasoning ISBN: 0983452148 ISBN-13(EAN): 9780983452140 Издательство: Неизвестно Рейтинг: Цена: 3440.00 р. Наличие на складе: Есть у поставщика Поставка под заказ.
Описание: This series of books presents the fundamentals of logic in a style accessible to both students and scholars. The text of each essay presents a story, the main line of development of the ideas, while the notes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The essays overlap, forming a unified analysis of logic as the art of reasoning well, yet each essay is designed so that it may be read independently. The topic of this volume is prescriptive reasoning. Descriptive claims say how the world is, was, or will be; prescriptive claims say how the world should be. We have fairly clear rules for reasoning with descriptive claims. The goal of the first essay, "Reasoning with Prescriptive Claims," is to clarify how to reason with prescriptive ones. The first step in doing so is to justify our viewing prescriptions as true or false. That justification is part of a general approach to reasoning in which many kinds of personal evaluations are taken to be true-false divisions. That view has been implicit if not explicit in analyses of reasoning from formal logic through argument analysis. in "Truth and Reasoning" I set out reasons for adopting that methodology. Theories, too, seem to be descriptive or prescriptive. Some say how the world is, others how the world should be. Yet, as shown in "Prescriptive Theories?", on close examination the distinction evaporates. Unless, that is, one says that certain theories about values use an entirely different notion of truth than is used in science and is codified in our usual methods of reasoning. Absent that, there seems to be no justification for constructing and evaluating what are typically thought of as prescriptive theories differently from descriptive ones. Many discussions of how to evaluate prescriptive claims are given in terms of what is rational or irrational to do. In the final essay, "Rationality," what we mean by the idea of someone being rational is investigated and the limitations of that label in evaluating reasoning or actions is shown.
Автор: Richard L Epstein; Michael Rooney Название: Critical thinking ISBN: 1938421329 ISBN-13(EAN): 9781938421327 Издательство: Неизвестно Рейтинг: Цена: 11026.00 р. Наличие на складе: Есть у поставщика Поставка под заказ.
ООО "Логосфера " Тел:+7(495) 980-12-10 www.logobook.ru
